Table 1 Examples of radio-, fluorescent and hybrid tracers used for preoperative imaging and intraoperative guidance

Blood flow

Gd-DTPA (MRI; [61]), Iomeron (CT; [62]), Optison (US; [63])

ICG (fluorescence; [64]), Fluorescein (fluorescence; [65])

-

Sentinel lymph nodes

Radiocolloids ^* (SPECT; [66])

Radiocolloids ^* (γ probe; [66]), SPIONs (magnetic probe; [67]), ICG (fluorescence; [66]), Fluorescein (fluorescence; [68])

ICG-^99mTc-nanocolloid (γ probe and fluorescence; [66])

Biliary excretion

^99mTc-mebrofenin (SPECT; [69]), ^99mTc-disofenin (SPECT; [70])

ICG (fluorescence; [71])

-

(Para)thyroid

^123/131I-pertechnate (SPECT; [72]), ^99mTc-sestamibi (SPECT;[73]), Iodine (SPECT; [74])

ICG (fluorescence; [75]), ^123/131I-pertechnetate (γ probe; [76]), ^99mTc-sestamibi (γ probe; [77]), autofluorescence (fluorescence), Iodine (γ probe; [77])

¹²⁴I (Beta-probe, Cerenkov imaging; [55]), ¹²³I‐Methylene Blue (γ probe visual blue; [77])

Metabolism

¹⁸F-FDG (PET; [55]), ^123/131I-MIBG (SPECT; [78])

5-ALA (PpIX; fluorescence; [79,80,81]), ¹²⁵I-MIBG (γ probe; [82])

-

Receptor targeted

  Prostate cancer (PSMA)

⁶⁸ Ga-PSMA (PET; [83]), ¹⁸F-PSMA (PET; [84]), ^99mTc-PSMA-I&S (SPECT; [40])

⁶⁸ Ga-PSMA (beta-probe; [83]), ^99mTc-PSMA I&S (γ probe; [40])

⁶⁸ Ga-PSMA (beta-probe and Cerenkov; [85]), ⁶⁸ Ga-Glu-urea-Lys-(HE)₃-HBED-CC-IRDye800CW (PET and fluorescence; [86])

  Somatostatin

⁶⁸ Ga-DOTATOC (PET; [87, 88]), ¹¹¹In-octreotide (SPECT; [89]), ^99mTc-deptreotide (SPECT; [90]), ⁶⁸ Ga-DOTATATE (PET; [91])

⁶⁸ Ga-DOTATOC (beta probe; [55]), ¹¹¹In-octreotide (γ probe; [53]), ^99mTc-deptreotide (γ probe; [53])

-

  Tyrosine-protein kinase Met (C-Met)

⁶⁸ Ga-EMP-100 (PET; [92])

EMI-137 (fluorescence; [93, 94])

-

  Integrins (a_Vb₃)

⁶⁸ Ga-RGD (PET; [95]), ¹⁸F-RGD (PET; [96])

cRGD-ZW800-1 (fluorescence; [97])

¹²⁴I‐cRGDY‐PEG‐C (beta probe, fluorescence; [98])

  Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)

⁸⁹Zr-Bevacizumab (PET; [99])

CW800-Bevacizumab (fluorescence; [100]),

-

  Human epidermal growth factor-2 (Her-2)

⁶⁸ Ga-Her2 (PET; [101])

CW800-HER2 (fluorescence; [102])

¹¹¹In-HER2-IRDye800CW (γ probe, fluorescence; [103])

  Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA)

¹¹¹In-DTPA (SPECT; [104]), ¹¹¹In-IMP288 (SPECT; [105])

FITC‐CEA mAb (fluorescence; [106]), SGM-101 (fluorescence; [107])

¹¹¹In-DTPA-SGM-101) (γ probe, fluorescence; [104]), FITC‐¹²⁵I‐ CEA mAb (γ probe, fluorescence; [108])

  Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)

⁸⁹Zr-Cetuximab (PET; [109])

cetuximab-IRDye800 (fluorescence; [110,111,112]), panitumumab-IRDye800 (fluorescence; [113])

-

Carbonic Anhydrase IX

⁸⁹Zr-Girentuximab (PET; [114]), ¹²⁴I-redectane (PET; [115])

-

¹¹¹In‐DOTA‐ Girentuximab-IRDye800CW (γ probe, fluorescence; [116])